Migration has become one of the defining features of our global era. Across regions, people move in search of better livelihoods, safety, and opportunities for their families. In some cases, migration is a choice driven by aspiration; in others, it is a necessity shaped by conflict, climate shocks, and economic hardship. Nowhere are these dynamics more visible than in sub-Saharan Africa, where migration patterns are deeply intertwined with household survival strategies.
Within this broader movement, female migration has gained increasing attention – but remains underexplored in development research, particularly in relation to poverty outcomes. This study examines a critical question: What is the effect of female migration and remittances on poverty reduction in ECOWAS countries between 1990 and 2020?
In this paper, “Female Migration, Remittances and Poverty Reduction in ECOWAS,” published in Poverty & Public Policy (18: e70063. https://doi.org/10.1002/pop4.70063), we examined the relationship between female migration, remittances, and poverty reduction in ECOWAS countries from 1990 to 2020, using household per capita consumption expenditure as a proxy for poverty reduction.
Rethinking Migration Through a Gender Lens
Much of the existing literature on migration treats migrants as a homogenous group. Yet, gender matters. Women migrate under different social, economic, and structural conditions compared to men, and their migration outcomes also differ.
In the ECOWAS region, female migration is often shaped by:
Economic hardship and unemployment,
Care responsibilities and household survival strategies,
Informal and precarious labour opportunities abroad,
And in some cases, distress migration driven by poverty.
This study focused specifically on female migration, rather than total migration, to capture these gendered realities and their implications for household welfare.
Migration, Remittances, and Poverty: What the Data Shows
Using panel data from 1990 to 2020 across ECOWAS countries, the study employs a Prais-Winsten regression model with panel-corrected standard errors, alongside a Feasible Generalized Least Squares (FGLS) robustness check. Poverty is measured using household per capita consumption expenditure, a standard proxy for welfare outcomes.
The findings present a complex and somewhat paradoxical picture.
1. Female migration and poverty: an unexpected increase
The results show that a 1% increase in female migration is associated with a 0.476 increase in household poverty.
At first glance, this may appear counterintuitive. However, it suggests that female migration in ECOWAS may often reflect distress-driven mobility rather than opportunity-led migration. When women migrate under economic pressure, households may lose:
Essential income-generating labour,
Caregiving roles that sustain household productivity,
And social stability within the home.
Rather than immediately lifting households out of poverty, migration in this context may initially deepen economic vulnerability.
2. Remittances: a clear poverty-reducing force
In contrast, remittances show a strong mitigating effect. A 1% increase in remittances reduces household poverty by 0.414.
This reinforces the idea that remittances act as a household-level shock absorber, enabling families to:
Smooth consumption during economic hardship,
Pay for education and healthcare,
And invest in small-scale economic activities.
Remittances therefore function as a critical survival and welfare mechanism in ECOWAS economies.
3. The moderating role of remittances
Perhaps the most important insight from this study is the interaction between female migration and remittances. The results show that when both are considered together, a 1% increase in their joint effect reduces poverty by 0.009.
While modest in size, this finding is significant. It suggests that migration only becomes poverty-reducing when it successfully generates and transmits remittances back to the household. In other words, migration alone is not sufficient – its benefits depend on the strength and reliability of financial flows back home.
What These Findings Mean
Taken together, the results challenge the often simplistic assumption that migration automatically reduces poverty. Instead, they reveal a more nuanced reality:
Female migration in ECOWAS may initially reflect economic distress rather than upward mobility.
Remittances play a crucial compensatory role in stabilising household welfare.
The poverty-reducing effects of migration depend heavily on how effectively migrants can support their households financially.
Policy Implications: Beyond Migration Itself
These findings point to two key policy directions.
First, reducing distress-driven female migration requires addressing structural economic vulnerabilities. Governments in ECOWAS should prioritise:
Employment creation for women within local economies,
Skills development and vocational training,
And improved access to decent work opportunities.
Second, since remittances clearly reduce poverty, policies should focus on maximising their developmental impact, through:
Lowering remittance transfer costs,
Strengthening financial inclusion systems,
Encouraging savings and investment channels,
And promoting productive use of remittances in households.
Why This Study Matters
This research contributes to migration and development literature in three important ways:
It shifts the focus from total migration to female-specific migration patterns, highlighting gendered dynamics often overlooked in policy discussions.
It provides new evidence from ECOWAS, a region where migration is a central feature of household economies but still under-analysed in gendered terms.
It introduces a novel perspective by examining the moderating role of remittances on female migration and poverty, rather than treating them as separate variables.
Final Reflection
Female migration in ECOWAS is not a simple story of empowerment or deprivation. It is a complex social and economic process shaped by inequality, survival strategies, and transnational family responsibilities. The real development question is not only whether women migrate – but under what conditions migration becomes a pathway out of poverty rather than a reflection of it.
In April 2026, I had the privilege of representing my research team and presenting the key findings of our CODESRIA-funded study at the 2023/2024 MRI Publication and Dissemination Workshop in Nairobi, Kenya. The workshop brought together researchers from across Africa, united by a shared commitment to producing and communicating research that matters – research that can inform policy, shape practice, and ultimately improve lives.
Our presentation, titled “Climate Change Induced Flooding: Implications for Food Security and Income Among Female Smallholder Farmers in Nigeria,” drew from several months, mixed-methods study conducted across all six geopolitical zones of Nigeria. What we shared in Nairobi was not just data – it was the lived experience of many women farmers whose worlds are being quietly dismantled by crisis.
Why This Study? The Problem We Could Not Ignore
Nigeria sits at a critical and deeply troubling intersection: it is one of Africa’s largest agricultural economies, and yet it is also one of the continent’s most vulnerable countries to the effects of climate change. The agricultural sector contributes significantly to the country’s GDP, and rural women – as primary food producers and household caregivers – sit at the very heart of this system.
Yet, as rainfall patterns become increasingly erratic, temperatures steadily rise, and flooding events grow more frequent and more severe, these women are being pushed to the margins of survival. The global literature has long established the nexus between climate change and food insecurity, but the specific, gendered dimensions of this relationship within Nigeria’s diverse ecological and sociocultural contexts remained underexplored.
Our study sought to close that gap. Specifically, we set out to:
– Understand historical climatic trends across Nigeria over time;
– Ascertain the impact of flooding on the food security of female smallholder farmers;
– Assess how flooding affects their income levels; and
– Determine the coping mechanisms these women employ to survive.
With funding from the Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) and guided by theoretical lenses – we designed a study that would not just measure suffering, but listen to the voices behind the numbers.
A Study Rooted in Rigor: Materials and Methods
One of the aspects of our research that generated considerable interest at the Nairobi workshop was the robustness of our methodology. We adopted a mixed-methods research design – combining the depth of qualitative inquiry with the breadth and statistical power of quantitative analysis. The research spanned Nigeria’s six geopolitical zones, with data collected in Bauchi (North East), Jigawa (North West), Kogi (North Central), Bayelsa (South-South), Ogun (South West), and Anambra (South East). This geographic breadth allowed us to capture the diversity of Nigeria’s ecological, cultural, and economic contexts. Our study engaged female smallholder farmers as primary respondents, alongside state and non-state actors as key informants.
Who Are These Women? A Profile of Our Respondents
Understanding our findings requires understanding who the women at the centre of our study are. The sociodemographic profile that emerged from our data paints a picture of structural disadvantage layered upon structural disadvantage.
The majority of respondents (54.2%) were between the ages of 30 and 49. Most lived in rural areas (87.1%), had low incomes – with 87% earning less than ₦60,000 per month – and had limited formal education, with 52.9% having less than secondary-level schooling. Access to financial services was almost entirely absent: 85.6% had no access to credit. Digital and energy poverty further compounded their vulnerability – 83% had no internet access, and 62.4% lacked reliable electricity.
These are women who are already operating at the margins. The arrival of floodwaters does not merely inconvenience them. It destroys them.
Key Findings: What the Data Told Us – and What the Women Said
1. Nigeria’s Climate is Changing – and the Evidence is Unmistakable
Our analysis of historical climate data across Nigeria revealed a stark and alarming picture. In the North, rainfall has declined progressively, driving drought conditions, desertification, and crop failure. In the South and coastal regions, the picture is almost the opposite: increasing rainfall variability and heavier precipitation events have made flooding more frequent and more destructive.
Average temperatures increased from 27.0°C in 2001 to 27.8°C in 2022. Northern regions recorded persistently low humidity (41%–49%), while coastal and southern regions showed high but increasingly unstable humidity levels, often exceeding 80%.
Perhaps most significant historically is the transition our data revealed: from the 1960s through the 1980s, climate risks in Nigeria were predominantly drought-related. Today, the country has shifted decisively toward a flood-prone reality – a transition with profound implications for farming systems, food production, and rural livelihoods that have not yet adapted to this new normal.
2. Flooding Is Recurrent, Unpredictable, and Deeply Feared
The voices we gathered across Nigeria’s six zones were consistent in their testimony: flooding is no longer a seasonal inconvenience. It is a recurring trauma.
“The floods keep coming almost every year.” – Case Study Participant, Female, Kogi
“Yes, the flooding is now more serious than before. Before, we used to expect floods around September, but now it can start as early as July, and we are not always ready.” – FGD Participant, Female, Bayelsa
“Floods affected me so much… I invested my money on the farm thinking I will make profits and then floods came [and] washed away everything… we are just managing life.” – Case Study Participant, Female Flood Survivor, Jigawa
These accounts illustrate something that statistics alone cannot fully convey: the psychological weight of living under the perpetual threat of flooding. Women plan, invest, plant – and then watch the waters take everything.
3. Knowledge of Climate Change Is Low, But Flood Experience Drives Awareness
Our Climate Knowledge Index (Cronbach Alpha: 0.788) revealed that formal knowledge of climate change among female smallholder farmers remains low. However, an important finding emerged: flood experience was the most significant predictor of climate change awareness. Women who had lived through flooding were markedly more aware of climatic changes – not through textbooks or extension services, but through the painful school of lived experience.
4. Flooding Is Devastating Food Security Across Five Dimensions
We constructed a comprehensive Household Food Insecurity Index encompassing five dimensions and 53 indicators: food access, perceived food availability, food utilization barriers, food stability, and food agency. The findings were deeply concerning.
78% of households reported worrying that food would run out before they could afford to obtain more – a direct marker of food insecurity. Approximately three-quarters of respondents could only “sometimes” afford balanced meals. Many households reported regularly reducing meal quality or shifting to cheaper, nutritionally inferior food options.
Our State and Flood interaction analysis revealed something particularly important for policy: the impact of flooding on food security is “location-sensitive”. Two farmers with identical educational backgrounds and similar farm sizes may experience dramatically different food outcomes depending solely on where they farm. This underscores the importance of geographically disaggregated food security interventions.
5. Flooding is Economically Devastating – The Numbers Are Stark
Using Structural Equation Modelling, we quantified what many policymakers have intuited but rarely measured with precision: flooding has a strong and statistically significant negative effect on income. Specifically, each one-unit increase in flooding severity reduces a female farmer’s monthly income by approximately ₦22,279. This happens either directly or indirectly. The direct pathway shows that flooding suppresses income. The indirect pathway is mediated through food insecurity as follows: Flooding → Food Insecurity → Income reduction. Both are statistically significant.
In other words, flooding does not only destroy crops in the moment – it deepens food insecurity, which in turn further erodes household income in a compounding cycle of deprivation.
6. Coping Strategies Are Largely Self-Driven – and Insufficient
Our analysis of preparedness and coping mechanisms revealed a troubling pattern: these women are largely “left to cope alone”.
Across six preparedness and response indices, the scores were uniformly low or average:
– Early Warning and Monitoring Index: Low (40.3%)
– Community and Institutional Response Index: Low (45.0%)
– Household and Individual Preparedness Index: Low (45.4%)
– Financial and Livelihood Adaptations Index: Average (42.5%)
– Social and Support Networks Index: Average (56.0%)
– Overall Preparedness: Poor (20.1%)
Coping strategies ranged from borrowing money and skipping meals to taking on additional jobs and drawing on indigenous adaptive knowledge. But these strategies are reactive, not preventive – and they are proving insufficient against the scale and frequency of contemporary flooding.
Beyond the Numbers: What Analysis Further Revealed
Some of the most profound – and perhaps most overlooked – dimensions of our findings emerged from our qualitative analysis. Climate change, our study reveals, is not merely an environmental or economic crisis. It is a gendered, socio-cultural, psychosocial, and even spiritual crisis for these communities.
Gendered: Flooding intersects with and exacerbates existing gender inequalities, touching on reproductive health, gender-based violence, and women’s reduced bargaining power within households and communities.
Psychosocial: Female farmers reported trauma, anxiety, and psychological distress linked to recurring flood events – dimensions that remain entirely absent from most climate adaptation frameworks.
Cultural: Indigenous knowledge and cultural practices – including beliefs about specific plants that can ward off floods – form an important part of how communities interpret and respond to climate events. These cannot be dismissed; they must be engaged.
Spiritual: In some communities, flooding has been “deified” – understood as a spiritual phenomenon as much as a physical one. This shapes how communities respond and what interventions they will accept.
Our findings also documented how flooding is “accelerating the feminisation of agrarian poverty” – deepening women’s economic vulnerability, displacing them from ancestral land, eroding cultural ties, and in some cases triggering “de-agrarianization”: women withdrawing from farming altogether, a development with dire implications for household food systems and rural community stability.
Some Recommendations from Our Study
Our research concludes with some clear and urgent set of recommendations:
Women-centred climate adaptation policies – Policy must explicitly recognise and respond to the gendered dimensions of climate-induced flooding.
Improved access to land, finance, and agricultural innovation – Structural barriers that limit women’s economic agency must be dismantled.
Integration of indigenous knowledge systems – Adaptation frameworks must incorporate, not ignore, the knowledge that communities have developed over generations.
Community-driven, Afrocentric approaches – Solutions imposed from outside will fail. Locally-rooted, culturally-resonant strategies are more likely to succeed.
Expanded climate financing for vulnerable communities – The communities most affected by climate change are also those with the least access to adaptation funding.
A shift from reactive to proactive resilience – The current reliance on experience-based coping must give way to proactive climate education and preparedness before disasters strike.
Our recommendations are directly relevant to the achievement of multiple Sustainable Development Goals:
SDG 1 (No Poverty)
SDG 2 (Zero Hunger)
SDG 3 (Good Health)
SDG 5 (Gender Equality)
SDG 8 (Decent Work)
SDG 11 (Sustainable Communities), and
SDG 13 (Climate Action).
Challenges
It is worth noting that fieldwork was not without its challenges. Several communities were only accessible by boat. We encountered call-back difficulties, requests for payment, security concerns, field accidents, and participant attrition – partly due to displacement from prior flood events, and partly due to communities’ negative experiences with previous researchers. These challenges only deepened our conviction that rigorous, ethical, community-centred research in these contexts demands patience, adaptability, and genuine respect for participants.
A Few Other Highlights Worth Mentioning
The workshop was far more than a platform for presenting research – it was a vibrant intellectual gathering that brought together scholars from across Africa to interrogate the state of knowledge production, publication, and dissemination on the continent. The workshop featured two landmark keynote addresses: Professor Paul Tiyambe Zeleza challenged participants to confront the transformative – and disruptive – implications of Artificial Intelligence for social science research and knowledge circulation in Africa, while renowned Kenyan author and media personality Barack Muluka delivered a compelling talk on intellectual freedom as an epistemic standpoint, urging African researchers to reclaim agency over how knowledge produced on the continent is processed, published, and shared with the world. A highlight of the workshop was the much-anticipated book launch of AI and Higher Education: Opportunities, Challenges and Trends, co-authored by Paul Tiyambe Zeleza and Ben Vinson III – a timely and thought-provoking contribution that sparked rich debate among participants. Adding to the personal significance of the workshop, I had the honour of serving as rapporteur for Barack Muluka’s keynote session, a role I found both instructive and deeply rewarding.
Reflections on Nairobi
Presenting this work at the MRI Publication and Dissemination Workshop in Nairobi was both humbling and energising. The questions, observations, and contributions from fellow researchers deepened our understanding and reaffirmed the importance of this kind of research – research that centres African voices, African experiences, and African solutions.
We are grateful to CODESRIA for the funding that made this study possible, and to the many mentors and colleagues who shaped our thinking throughout the research process. Above all, we remain grateful to women farmers across Nigeria who trusted us with their stories, their pain, and their resilience.
As Ban Ki-Moon once observed: “Climate change is the single greatest threat to a sustainable future – but, at the same time, addressing the climate challenge presents a golden opportunity to promote prosperity, security, and a brighter future for all.”
For Nigeria’s female smallholder farmers, that future cannot wait.
The full study was supported by CODESRIA. For enquiries or collaborations, please contact the lead researcher: info@judithiani.com
Dr. Ani continues to advance her commitment to research excellence and capacity development through active participation at workshops and conferences. During the Glotan–Durban University of Technology Joint Conference on Climate Change and Economic Management for a Sustainable Future, held in Durban, South Africa, Dr. Ani facilitated a capacity-building session titled “Writing Grant-Winning Proposals,” designed to equip academics, early-career researchers, and development practitioners with practical skills for securing competitive research funding.
The session addressed the growing need for high-quality, fundable research proposals capable of responding to complex global challenges such as climate change and sustainable development.
Dr. Ani’s presentation provided participants with a structured approach to grant writing, emphasizing strategic alignment with funders’ priorities, clarity in research problem formulation, and methodological rigor. She also offered practical insights into budgeting and justification, dissemination planning, and common weaknesses that often undermine otherwise promising proposals.
Key thematic areas covered during the session included:
Pre-Proposal Planning: Understanding eligibility criteria, aligning research ideas with donor priorities, and adhering to timelines.
Proposal Structuring: Clearly articulating research motivation, objectives, methodology, and expected contributions.
Budget Development and Justification: Ensuring coherence between project activities and financial plans.
Common Pitfalls in Grant Writing: Identifying and avoiding frequent causes of proposal rejection.
Responding to Rejection: Building resilience and effectively incorporating reviewer feedback into revised submissions.
A major highlight of the session was the emphasis on resilience in the grant application process. Drawing on professional experience, Dr. Ani encouraged participants to view rejection as part of scholarly growth and a pathway to improved funding success.
The session was highly interactive, with participants actively engaging in discussions and sharing lived experiences of grant writing challenges. Feedback from attendees highlighted the session’s practical orientation, mentorship-driven approach, and relevance to contemporary research funding landscapes.
Dr. Ani’s participation in this international conference reflects her ongoing dedication to strengthening research capacity, fostering interdisciplinary collaboration, and supporting scholars to produce impactful, fundable research that contributes to sustainable development outcomes.
Attending and presenting at the Gerontological Society of America (GSA) Annual Scientific Meeting in Boston, Massachusetts, was a deeply enriching and transformative experience. The conference – one of the largest and most influential global gatherings on ageing – brought together more than 4500 attendees from over 40 countries, featuring an impressive 1300+ symposia, 600+ papers and 1900+ posters presentations across diverse formats. As a scholar committed to improving ageing and health outcomes, participating in this vibrant intellectual and professional environment was both inspiring and affirming.
I had the privilege of making a presentation on improving health care quality for older adults in Sub-Saharan Africa while drawing lessons for global health systems.”
My work explored the unique challenges facing older adults in Sub-Saharan Africa – from fragmented health systems to limited geriatric training, etc.- and highlighted pathways for reform that are globally relevant. Key themes from my presentation included:
Strengthening primary health care to better serve ageing populations
Integrating geriatric competencies into medical and nursing education
Prioritizing equity in health system reforms
Drawing lessons from community-based models that promote continuity of care
The reception to my presentation was inspiring and positive. I engaged with researchers, co-presenters and other delegates, exchanging meaningful ideas and information geared towards a better and interdisciplinary understanding of the complexities of ageing in low- and middle-income contexts.
Beyond my own presentation, the conference offered an extraordinary range of activities and learning opportunities including:
Scientific Sessions and Symposiums: Leading experts shared cutting-edge research on ageing, covering different aspects of ageing from biology, artificial intelligence, sociology, economics, geography, psychology, transportation, climate change, minorities, long term care, health, women issues, disabilities, physical activities, policies, etc, with insights from across the globe.
Keynotes & Plenary Sessions: These sessions set the tone for important conversations about ageing, longevity, health equity, and the future of ageing research.
Networking & ESPO Activities: The Emerging Scholar and Professional Organization (ESPO) activities and other activities like momentum discussions, mentorship sessions, and workshops were particularly valuable for career growth.
Exercises and Interests Groups Meetings: Engaging interest group meetings allowed for deeper dives into specific areas in ageing research. The exercise sessions were also fun and refreshing.
Awards, Exhibitions & Mini-Mentorships: These highlighted the best of the field and provided platforms for new scholars like myself to connect with senior researchers.
What made the conference especially powerful was the global nature of the discussions. Although health system realities differ from country to country, the shared goal of improving the health and well-being of older adults created a sense of unity and purpose.
My conversations with colleagues from Asia, Europe, Latin America, North America and Africa reaffirmed that many of the challenges faced in Sub-Saharan Africa – workforce shortages, underfunding, inequities, etc. – are mirrored worldwide. Yet, Africa can also learn and as well offer innovative community-driven approaches that other regions can learn from.
Looking Ahead
Presenting at GSA strengthened my commitment to advancing research on ageing and contributing to global conversations on older adults’ health equity. I look forward to:
Publishing more on aging-related studies
Building international collaborations
Engaging in career opportunities
Translating evidence into policies that improve the lives of older adults
I am deeply grateful for the opportunity and excited about the work ahead.
Gender-based violence (GBV) poses a significant global threat to human rights, public health and attaining the Sustainable Development Goals. There is a growing emphasis on researching to identify issues and understand the experiences of women relative to GBV. The increasing demand for policymakers and public health practitioners to adopt evidence-based approaches in addressing GBV highlights the need for research prioritization on experiences of GBV among women in resource-limited settings such as sub-Saharan Africa. This paper explored GBV among women in 25 sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries to identify and present key intervention priority areas for addressing GBV in these settings.
Methods
The study involved a cross-sectional analysis of a nationally representative dataset from the Demographic and Health Survey of 25 SSA African countries. Data was analyzed descriptively and inferentially using the Pearson chi-square (X2) at a p < 0.05.
Results
Findings revealed that women aged 25–29, living in rural areas and with primary education were at a significant risk of experiencing GBV across 25 SSA countries. A notable 44.94% of women reported experiencing at least one form of GBV, with the prevalence varying by country. Women in Comoros had the lowest reported prevalence (10.76%), while Sierra Leone women had the highest (60.27%), followed by Uganda (56.92%). Emotional and physical violence were most prevalent in Sierra Leone, while sexual violence was most common in Burundi and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Discussion
This study highlights the urgent need for targeted …
Abstract: Background: Vaccination is a proven and safe method for combating COVID-19; however, coverage remains low in many low- and middle-income countries, including Nigeria. There is also a lack of contextual evidence regarding the public perception of and willingness to receive vaccines. This study aims to contribute to efforts to optimize the vaccination coverage and improve public health in northern Nigeria. Objective: This study investigated the perceptions of COVID-19 vaccination and willingness to uptake the vaccine in northern Nigeria, aiming to identify strategies for optimizing coverage and enhancing vaccination rates. Methods: A cross-sectional household survey was conducted across the Federal Capital Territory and five northern states in Nigeria. The survey assessed the respondents’ perceptions of COVID-19, their knowledge of the COVID-19 vaccine, and their willingness to be vaccinated. Descriptive and inferential (multivariate logistic regression) statistical analyses were employed to characterize the population and identify predictors of vaccine uptake. Results: The mean age of the respondents was 28.00 years. The majority reported at least one piece of misinformation regarding COVID-19. While awareness of the vaccine was high, its actual uptake was low, and future willingness to receive the vaccine was also limited. Employment status emerged as a significant predictor of vaccine uptake, as determined through the multivariate analysis. Furthermore, collaboration with NGOs and community-based organizations (CBOs) was identified as the most effective strategy for enhancing vaccine uptake. Conclusions: This study found a concerningly low willingness to receive the COVID-19 vaccine among participants in northern Nigeria. To address this issue, we recommend establishing partnerships with NGOs and CBOs, implementing extensive public awareness campaigns, and conducting community outreach programs. These efforts should focus on dispelling misinformation, building community trust, and promoting vaccine uptake through culturally appropriate communication materials.
The global rise in the elderly population is a significant concern, yet it has not received sufficient policy attention, particularly in developing countries like Nigeria. Africa is expected to witness a substantial increase in its elderly population, projected to grow from 11% to 22% between 2000 and 2050.[1] In the context of Nigeria, the number of individuals aged 65 and above has risen dramatically, escalating from 2,907,740 in 1991 to 4,536,761 in 2006[2]&[3]. This indicates a rapid growth of 1,629,021 within a mere two decades. Projections suggest that the elderly population in Nigeria will continue to expand, reaching 11.5 million by 2025 and a staggering 25.5 million by 2050. These figures stand in contrast to the 6.4 million recorded in 2005, to constituting approximately 10% of Nigeria’s total population. This demographic shift emphasizes the pressing need for comprehensive policies and initiatives to address the evolving needs and challenges associated with an ageing population.[4]
In Africa, the process of ageing transcends mere biology; it holds profound social, cosmological, and spiritual significance. This transformative journey is accompanied by a tapestry of cultural practices that underscore its sacred nature. Among the Ngwo people in Enugu State, located in the southeastern region of Nigeria, the elderly are revered and celebrated through unique names and customs. Titles such as “adukwurum,” “orinandu,” “amushi,” “ogeenyi,” “noomu,” “ogbun’agodo,” “Ogbu Ibuo,” and “Ite Ogbo” are bestowed upon them, symbolizing their role as esteemed progenitors, custodians of wisdom, and bearers of extensive life experiences.[5]
These distinctive names symbolize celebrations and honour bestowed upon elderly men and women, acknowledging their enduring vitality, industriousness, and accomplishments in nurturing successful generations. Specifically, the term “Adukwurum” embodies the celebration of individuals—both male and female—whose lives extend to witness the presence of (great)grandchildren and the achievements of their offspring. “Orinandu” denotes an elder who lives to see old age, enjoying the fruits of their children’s prosperity. Meanwhile, “Amushi” and “Ogbu n’agodo” pay tribute to elderly males and females, respectively, revered for their exceptional fertility levels. The title “Noomu” is reserved for a resilient elder woman who has withstood the trials of labour numerous times, having given birth to ten or more children. Furthermore, designations like “Og’enyi,” “Ogbu Ibuo,” and “Ite Ogbo” encompass additional variations of cultural festivities honouring elderly men and women, celebrating their enduring longevity and progeny.
Yet, within these celebrations, the complex dynamics of ageing persist. While old age is widely respected, for some, it presents a challenging phase marked by functional limitations and other adversities. As individuals age, they may contend with disabilities, ailments, financial hardship, diminished income, and other socioeconomic difficulties. This sobering reality, particularly prev[i]alent in developing nations, unfolds amidst a backdrop of inadequate political commitment to institute comprehensive welfare policies for the elderly.
ISSUES, NARRATIVES AND LESSONS LEARNT
Delving deeper in light of the aforementioned, a southeastern Nigeria study conducted among 816 older adults,[6] underscored a significant prevalence of disability. Notably, seven out of every ten elderly individuals required assistance with Activities of Daily Living (ADL) and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL). Intriguingly, this study illuminated a gender disparity, revealing that men were twice as likely as their female counterparts to necessitate such assistance. Furthermore, the research indicated a noteworthy correlation between education and disability risk. Elderly respondents with limited or no formal education faced an elevated likelihood of experiencing disabilities. This linkage can be attributed to the fact that education plays a pivotal role in fostering a proactive approach towards preventive healthcare, bolstering the capacity to effectively manage various pathologies, and preempting the onset of chronic conditions.
Additionally, the study highlighted the critical importance of physical exercise. Those who refrained from engaging in regular physical activity exhibited a staggering seven-fold increase in the risk of disability concerning ADL, alongside a twofold risk elevation for IADL-related disabilities, when compared to their exercise-practising counterparts. This emphasizes the vital role of physical activity in promoting functional independence and mitigating the onset of disabilities among the elderly population.
Mobility-related disability, primarily stemming from stroke, imposed the most substantial burden among all types of disabilities. The prevalence of strokes was higher in males than in females. Upon further examination, it was found that alcohol consumption, specific occupational choices, and smoking were correlated with an increased risk of strokes. Among the elderly, those with lower levels of education faced a heightened risk of dementia compared to their tertiary-educated counterparts. Notably, individuals with no formal education exhibited a twelve-fold greater susceptibility to this disability.
Pain-related disability, centred around osteoarthritis and rheumatism, ranked as the second most prevalent form of disability. Elderly females were found to be 20% more susceptible to this category of disability compared to males. This discrepancy not only limited their engagement in social activities but also intensified their discomfort and other associated disadvantages. Additionally, elderly females were twice as likely as males to experience mental health issues. Physical exercise emerged as a significant factor linked to mental well-being. Engaging in physical activities served as a protective measure against mental-related disabilities, particularly dementia, mitigated the impact of disabilities in advanced age, and contributed to overall health promotion.
The study also shed light on instances of reported abuse. Emotional abuse was more frequently reported by males (64.7%), while physical abuse was more prevalent among females (53.8%). These instances of abuse were predominantly perpetrated by individuals in positions of trust. Unfortunately, a prevalent reason for not reporting such abuses was the fear of abandonment by caregivers, often family members.
Furthermore, approximately 47.7% of the respondents self-assessed their health as poor, indicating the presence of comorbidities in older age (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Respondents’ Self-reported Health Status in Percentage
Over half (56%) of the participants reported having experienced an illness within the four weeks preceding the study. These illnesses encompassed a range of conditions such as malaria, typhoid, fever, headaches, high blood pressure, ulcers, prostate cancer, waist pain, and cough, among others. Of the respondents, 46.8% rated the quality of healthcare they received as fair, while the remaining individuals perceived it as either good or poor as shown in Figure 2 below.
Figure 2: Quality of Care Received by Respondents
In another survey[7] conducted among older adults with disabilities in South-eastern Nigeria, the findings indicated that more than 70% of the participants had unmet needs.
Figure 3: Percentage of Elderly with Unmet Needs
This signifies a lack of access to fundamental requirements, encompassing financial resources, proper nutrition, healthcare, suitable housing, as well as rights and entitlements, including pension benefits. Mobility also emerged as a significant area where needs were not adequately fulfilled.
Based on the study’s findings, the most deficient areas of care and support were centred on financial assistance, with health care ranking second due to the burden of out-of-pocket payments, followed by insufficient access to proper nutrition. Article 25 of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, established in 1948, defines adequate standards of living as encompassing the ability to fulfil fundamental necessities such as proper diet, suitable shelter, clothing, housing, healthcare, long-term care services, and possession of resources to alleviate the impact of illnesses, disabilities, widowhood, old age, or the loss of a means of livelihood. Regrettably, a significant majority of respondents indicated their inability to afford a healthy lifestyle and meet adequate living standards. Among the participants, 66.0% did not utilize any form of assistive device, while the remaining 34.0% primarily relied on walking sticks (canes). Notably, none of the respondents utilized modern devices to navigate their surroundings effectively. Their environment was generally not ageing-friendly.
A sight-impaired woman living in a physical environment that is not ageing-friendly given the lack of handrails
The respondents’ coping mechanisms were influenced by their interpretation of the underlying causes of their disabilities. Some individuals, who attributed their disabilities to supernatural or preternatural factors, sought assistance from spiritual practitioners. Conversely, those with a medical understanding of their conditions leaned towards medical interventions to enhance their quality of life in their remaining years. Survival strategies often revolved around receiving financial support. This primarily took the form of remittances, often provided by their children. Additionally, some resorted to seeking alms as a means to sustain themselves.
An elderly begging for alms along the roadside
CONCLUSION
In each of these studies, participants shared their personal challenges and articulated their preferences for effective assistance as stated above. Therefore, it is crucial to provide support to the elderly through well-designed, need-based policies and initiatives. Drawing inspiration from established systems of care in countries such as Canada, Japan, Russia, the Netherlands, and China, there is an opportunity to examine and analyze these models with the aim of crafting a tailored approach for the elderly population in Nigeria.
Furthermore, it is proposed that a community-based healthcare system be developed, one that incorporates informal caregivers. This approach would ensure a seamless continuum of care, utilizing the support of individuals whom the elderly have been familiar with throughout their lives. To achieve this, a public-private partnership could be established. This partnership may encompass a well-structured home care and rehabilitation services framework, including specialized interventions like physiotherapy, delivered by trained professionals who collaborate with informal caregivers at the community level. Additionally, the implementation of innovative assistive technologies can play a pivotal role in enhancing the elderly’s independence and overall quality of life, and ensuring an ageing-friendly environment is crucial Establishing vibrant recreational centers that promote social engagement and combat feelings of loneliness and isolation is equally vital. This comprehensive approach strives to elevate social interaction equality, fostering a supportive environment for the elderly in Nigeria.
As the ongoing demographic transition continues, the imperative for a comprehensive collective welfare system becomes increasingly evident. This takes the form of a pension system designed to encompass all categories of the elderly, alongside community-based care and welfare policies, which together offer a targeted approach to policy interventions. In light of Nigeria’s commitment to achieving healthcare equity, the findings from these studies present a significant opportunity to address challenges and enhance access to healthcare and social safety nets for the elderly population. One potential avenue for achieving this is through the enhancement of the National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS). While currently covering only a fraction of the population, strategic modifications can extend its benefits to elderly individuals, particularly those living with disabilities. A crucial step involves broadening the NHIS’s eligibility criteria to encompass elderly individuals and fostering community-based outreach efforts. Valuable lessons can be gleaned from successful schemes in other countries to inform these enhancements.
To further fortify the safety net for the elderly, the establishment of a dedicated health fund is strongly recommended. Given that elderly individuals often heavily rely on extended family and friends for both healthcare and social support, the creation of a health fund could alleviate the economic burdens borne by both the elderly and their households. Recognizing the pressing need, there is a call for the implementation of a sustainable unconditional, non-contributory pension scheme. This measure aims to mitigate the adverse effects of poverty and economic hardships prevalent in contemporary Nigeria.
Despite the current lack of prioritization of ageing-related issues by the Nigerian government, as evident in the widespread out-of-pocket healthcare expenditures and a lack of political will to enforce ageing welfare policies, it remains crucial to acknowledge the formidable challenges that have already surfaced, including catastrophic health expenditures. Addressing the issues of disability and the challenges faced by the elderly in Nigeria is, therefore, of paramount importance. Such efforts are essential to enhance their quality of life and imbue their lives with greater significance as they approach the end of life.
OpenEdition suggests that you cite this post as follows: Judith I. Ani (August 15, 2023). Ageing in South-Eastern Nigeria: Issues, Personal Narratives and Lessons Learnt. Threads of Time. Retrieved May 19, 2025 from https://timethreads.hypotheses.org/149
Authors: Chris Chukwunyere Njoku, Judith Ifunanya Ani, Norah Lucky Katende-Kyenda
Publication date: 2024
Background:
Injecting drug use is a global public health challenge with multifaceted consequences, not only for Injecting Drug Users (IDUs) but also for society at large. Their vulnerability necessitates a deeper exploration of their health information needs, aiming to leverage evidence-based research to shape effective interventions for their well-being. Method: This study employed a qualitative method to gain insights into disease conditions and health information needs of IDUs. Through purposive sampling, 71 in-depth interviews were conducted and thematically analyzed. Results: The study included 43 males and 28 females, predominantly aged 26-35 (59.2%) who had poor socioeconomic status. The most commonly reported disease conditions varied and included malaria, infections and diabetes. Findings revealed a complex understanding of their disease conditions and management practices. Participants emphasized a critical need for access to reliable and comprehensive health information, while also highlighting the significant barriers they face in obtaining this information. Additionally, their preference for receiving health information in video formats, written articles, and through outreach programs underscored their desire for knowledge to make informed decisions. As co-creators and stakeholders in their health, participants expressed a clear demand for sustainable and free healthcare, mosquito nets, and regular outreach programs. Conclusions: While drug use presents a significant public health issue, effective interventions for IDUs require a multifaceted approach that begins with understanding their perspectives and actively …
Unmet needs for support relate to daily requirements for independent functioning among the elderly but which are unavailable, consequent upon declining informal support and challenges of accessing formal ones. This study explored unmet needs for support, including finance, assistive device, food and healthcare, among older persons with disability in Enugu State Nigeria. Using a multistage sampling and a triangulation of research methods, a total of 1030 older persons were selected for the study. Seven in every ten older persons in the sample (71.0%) had an unmet need. Of all the support received, financial support (79.8%) was the most inadequate. The predominant assistive device was the walking stick (84.9%). Only about four (38.0%) out of ten had three square meals with no recourse to a balanced diet. Of all the unmet felt needs, healthcare/medication (60.2%) was the most predominant followed by financial support. Their physical environment was neither disability-supportive nor ageing-friendly. We conclude that the high percentage of unmet needs among older persons in Enugu State Nigeria is consequent upon the absence of formal social welfare policies and programmes for the elderly. Unfortunately, the elderly would continue to have unmet needs given the declining safety nets traditionally provided by family members vis-à-vis the increasing economic hardship in the society. It is therefore recommended that governments at all levels should formulate and implement social welfare programmes to bridge the needs gap among senior citizens who had spent their vibrant years serving the government and society.
